E


Egbert, J., Jessup, L., & Valacich, J. (1991). Interactive CALL for groups: new technologies for ESL. CAELL Journal, 2, 18-24.

Subject: CMC; Second Language Acquisition.

Egbert, Jessup and Valacich demonstrate the potential of the computer as an educational tool for English as a Second Language. They state that research already indicates that the computer can facilitate grammar and drill-based activities, and that the advantages of word-processing programs have also been well-established. They present two more recent "explorations of computer technology for use in ESL classes [which] have moved beyond basic computer tools" of drilling and word processing. They cite Sayers, who presents the computer as a means of creating authentic contexts for writing, and Mackinson-Smyth who "indicates that negotiation strategies used in written interaction via networked computer systems improve both English language skills and students' attitude toward writing". The article demonstrates how an Electronic Meeting System (a network of personal computers) can be used in ESL instruction. Egbert, Jessup and Valacich describe how ESL students have used the EMS to write collaborative, creative compositions. The EMS enhanced students' ability to work together creatively and, by virtue of its efficiency, increased time on task.


Eisenberg, M. B., & Ely, D. P. (1993). Plugging into the 'net. Emergency Librarian, 21, 8-16.

Subject: CMC; Education.

Eisenberg and Ely give a basic introduction to the use of computer NetWorks in education. They describe the "educational benefits and applications of computer NetWorks in K-12 classrooms", present "the basics for getting started" and introduce "a sampling of NetWorks with offerings for K-12 students and teachers". In terms of benefits, Eisenberg and Ely list:

1. the breaking down "of communications barriers and inhibitions that often stifle the open exchange of ideas in traditional classrooms";

2. motivation;

3. exposure to "the rich technological and information environment of the future".

The remainder of the article is devoted to various types of network systems (local bulletin boards, college and university systems, statewide and regional systems, school computing facilities, and commercial vendors), uses (e-mail, file transfer, group communication) and various NetWorks with have specific L-12 applications (K12Net, FrEdMail, Usenet, KIDSNET, etc.).

Eisenberg and Ely cite Hunter's speculations on educational reform and "how computer and telecommunications technology can help to":

*meet the needs of our increasingly multicultural population;

*reform instructional methods and curricula to restructure schools to meet the needs of diverse students in an information society;

*forge closer links among school, community, industry and home; and

*support collaborations across institutional boundaries and among individuals isolated from one another".


Eldred, J. M. (1991). Pedagogy in the computer-networked classroom. Computers and Composition, 8, 47-61.

Subject: Classroom Dynamics; CMC; Equality Issues.

Although Eldred begins her article by stating that she will discuss computer NetWorks as a tool in composition pedagogy, much of what she says applies to computer networking as a discussion forum as well. While the opening of the article is somewhat general (i.e. the sections "Choice of Technology" and "Ease of Use", which basically deal with the question "what is e mail/computer conferencing?"), the later sections ("Participation" and "Audience"), raise significant points. For example under the heading "Participation", Eldred notes that while it is generally true that computer NetWorks encourage "egalitarian" communication (since many visual cues--age, sex, appearance, etc. remain hidden), this is not always the case:

As language theorists remind us, language carries with it the places it has been. Language, like technology, is never neutral, always socially charged. And while it is possible that students will practice and try on different voices, I was surprised to discover how many of the students carried their classroom "roles" with them on line.

Eldred gives an example of a 19-year-old female's "tags" to her contributions to discussion which shows that "given a situation where she could assume herself to be the intellectual equal of any other user on that network, she chose to recreate herself in or fell into a language that recreates her as someone young, naive, and unreflective".

Eldred points out that there are also hierarchies which form on computer NetWorks-- experienced computer users over novices, for example, or teacher over students--since the teachers' contributions, due to lexical sophistication, are easy to identify. Social mechanics also carry over into computer discussions. Those who are timid and merely listen in conversation without speaking tend to do the same thing in computer discussions. She makes several recommendations (pp. 54-55) for overcoming these difficulties in the networked classroom.

Eldred also addresses the issue of "Audience". While the nature of the medium would initially seem to be akin to letter-writing (a very audience-oriented activity), Eldred cites research that has been done showing that in CMC people "focus relatively strongly on themselves and on what they want to say and less strongly on their audience" (cited from Sproull and Kiesler, 1986). Students seem to think they are merely communicating into the computer, that there is no one on the other side. Ironically, Eldred writes, it is nevertheless this "tendency toward self-expression or self-disclosure that makes users feel themselves a coherent part of a group". Again, Eldred gives a list of recommendations (pp. 56-57) to balance out this problem of audience.


F


Farmer, S. M., & Hyatt, C. W. (1994). Effects of task language demands and task complexity on computer-mediated work groups. Small Group Research, 25, 331-366.

Subject: Audioconferencing; CMC; Discourse Analysis.

Farmer and Hyatt examine "issues surrounding the use of different media for the accomplishment of tasks that are relatively low in their demands for complex social interaction, but may vary in their demands for technical complexity". They study how "one component of media or information richness, language variety. . .combines with task information processing complexity and task language requirements to help determine the level of fit between the technology and the technical dimension of group task requirements".

Essentially Farmer and Hyatt define three dimensions in information processing language signs--numbers, words, and symbols. Different media transmit these different signs with different levels of effectiveness (i.e. text-based systems, audio components, visual (chart/graph) systems). Their study on the effectiveness of different communication systems involves three types--face-to face, audio conference, and network-linked computers ("screen share"). The subjects were a group of 162 undergraduates involved in a business simulation.

Farmer and Hyatt establish 7 hypotheses:

1. "A poor fit between task language demands and communication channels used will result in more communication problems: (a) members of audio conferencing groups will report the most communication problems; (b) members of face-to-face and screen-sharing groups will report the fewest communication problems."

2. "There will be differences in the number of operations that the groups will be able to perform in a given time: (a) audio conferencing groups will perform fewer operations (i.e., decisions) per time period than will members of the other groups; (b) face-to-face groups will perform the most operations per time period."

3. "A poor fit between task language demands and communication channels will result in more coordination problems: (a) members of audio conferencing groups will report the most coordination problems; (b) members of face-to-face and screensharing groups will report the fewest coordination problems."

4. "The poorer the fit between task language demands and communication channels, the less appropriate will be the strategies used: (a) audio conferencing groups will form decision stategies that are less appropriate than those of the other groups; (b) appropriateness of decision strategies of face-to-face and screensharing groups will not differ."

5. "Group performance will be predicted by the fit between the language demands of the task and the ability of the communication channel used to meet those demands: (a) audio conferencing groups will perform more poorly than will the other two groups; (b) performance of the face-to-face and screensharing groups will not differ."

6. "Information processing complexity of the task will be negatively related to performance for all groups."

7. "The task's information processing complexity will moderate the relationship between the task language demand-communication channel match and group effectiveness criteria of performance and strategy. As task complexity increases, audio conferencing groups will suffer greater performance decrements and will use less appropriate stategies than will the other groups."

Hypotheses 1 and 3 were more or less supported, 7 was not. All the others were supported.

This study deals only with information (data) transmission, and on that level it is very worthwhile. On the other hand, it has much less relevance to the social/cultural/interactive issues involved in CMC.


Feller, G. (1995). East meets west--online. Internet World, 6, 48-50.

Subject: CMC; Education; Videoconferencing.

Feller's article deals with MIT and Nanyang Technological University (Singapore) who are creating the "largest-ever MBA-granting experiment based solely on distance learning". "MIT's initiative goes a step further than other experiments in the field of electronic and interactive distance learning in its innovative use of satellite-based full-motion videoconferencing". "MIT's distance learning project centers on a rather simple idea: combining videoconferencing (transmitted via satellite and projected onto a big screen in the classroom) with asynchronous communications tools". "Because the project is not yet operational, there are a number of issues to be decided. According to Kemerer, the technical coordinator for the initiative, '[While all the] technical details regarding transmission media [such as the use of satellites vs. ISDN lines] will be easily worked out with our Asian partners, our real focus now is on nailing down all of the educational content issues.' ". Of course the reader is left with the question, "don't the educational content issues come first?" It seems that MIT is doing things backwards--how can one decide on a medium without first deciding what exactly is to be accomplished? How can one decide upon the means before deciding on the end?


Ferrara, K., Brunner, H., & Whittemore, G. (1991). Interactive written discourse as an emergent register. Written Communication, 8, 8-34.

Subject: CMC; Discourse Analysis.

Ferrara et al. discuss what they term "Interactive Written Discourse" (IWD) which they define as "the written language occurring in simultaneous terminal-to-terminal typed dialogues". They address the question of whether or not computer users "constitute a 'discourse community'" and if there are shared norms in their IWD. The findings of their study indicate three characteristics of IWD, "first, that it is a naturally occurring register, perhaps a reduced register; second, that it is a hybrid language variety, displaying characteristics of both oral and written language; and third, that norms of its use are in the process of becoming conventionalized".

Essentially IWD is a language variety which, like most language varieties, arises out of a new social context in which a new appropriate form of expression is needed. Therefore language users draw on existing language varieties to form hybrids. IWD contains elements of "postcardese", "telegraphese", and "headlinese". It can be compared, to an extent, to "Baby Talk" and "Foreigner Talk" but differs from these registers in that it is actually written on a computer screen, while the other two are oral modes. It is also similar to a "Note-taking" register, although IWD has an audience, while note-taking generally does not. Also, real-time e-messages are similar in many ways to other forms of CMC--e-mail, bulletin boards, etc. They all are rendered in text only, lack a "full range of paralinguistic cues", and are modes of communication in which "acquaintance with interlocutors and facts of identity are nonessential matters". So it is implied by the authors that what the study uncovers regarding IWD may also apply to other modes of CMC.

The study revealed the following reductive characteristics of IWD:

1. Omission of unstressed pronouns, especially subject pronouns

2. Omission of articles, both definite and indefinite

3. Omission of finite forms of the copula

4. Shortening of words through use of abbreviations and symbols

The study also showed that IWD has elements of both spoken and written language.

Spoken characteristics include: use of first- and second-person pronouns, WH questions, emphatics ("just", "real", etc.), colloquial usage and informal discourse particles ("okay", "sure", "let's", "how about", etc.).

Written characteristics include: elaborate or expanded structures (relative clauses, adverbial clauses, subordination--some of these clauses are quite lengthy), cataphora (forward reference), and certain very formal expressions.

One of the most important features which shows how IWD is both like written and spoken language is that it is simultaneously "interactive" and "edited".

The argument that norms of use are becoming conventionalized is supported by the issue of capitalization. Originally most CMC systems automatically capitalized every character. So no one bothered to capitalize anything. Now the systems have evolved to provide for standard capitalization, but many people still write in all lowercase characters-- a practice which now has no practical justification, but is merely conventional.


Finnegan, R. (1989). Communication and technology. Language and Communication, 9, 107-27.

Subject: Audioconferencing; CMC; Culture Issues; Online Resources; Videoconferencing.

Finnegan's article gives an excellent theoretical background which could very well serve as part of a backdrop to any study of communications technology. She essentially does two things. First she attacks what has come to be the traditional paradigm of communication technology theory and study--that of technological determinism. This paradigm operates under the assumption that technology shapes social concerns, values and institutions. Commentators on technology historically tend to suppose that technological developments (particularly in the modern era) bring about "revolutionary changes in our lives and our social institutions". She cites various examples set up by past theorists:

Writing...seen as a contrast to oral communication, can make major differences to the organization of social action (Goody, 1987a) or to cognitive procsses (Goody, 1987b, pp245-246, 1977, p.ix and passim; Ong, 1982, p.78 and passim), print leads to religious and political freedom or to linear modes of cognition (theories summed up, e.g. in Graff, 1982), telecommunication to international understanding (cf. Pool, 1977, 1983a) or modern electronic media to either economic prosperity (as in many government statements) and a new tribal togetherness (Carpenter and McLuhan, 1960, p.xi; and others), or to governmental and commercial dictatorship (e.g. Burnham, 1983). In fact a whole series of political, economic, social, cognitive, psychological, and even moral consequences have been seen as flowing in turn from the sequence of communication technologies through the ages.

She states further that "technology is viewed as autonomous and independent of social shaping, and as more or less inescapably determining social forms and relationships".

The second point of the article is to support an alternative to technological determinism. The alternative which Finnegan supports is not as "neat" as technological determinism, because its "emphasis is on the socio-cultural context of human history and experience...that includes manifold actors and interpretations rather than just one". This alternative asks questions such as "who controls the organization and distribution of a particular form of communication...whose interests it is (variously) used to serve, how people perceive and value it, who has (what kind of) access to it and in what conditions"? It is "the answer to those questions...that can tell us about the actual social uses and implications of the various forms of communication for social organization and cognitive processes in the past or present--and, no doubt, the future". "The theoretical possibilities of...technology...are only translated into practice following the particular expectations of particular cultures: it may be dominated by...local views about gender...by local patterns of social stratification and education...or by religion . . ."

Finnegan's article is far more in-depth and thought provoking than this summary gives it credit for. Only the most significant points have been pulled out here. Such a short format cannot do justice to Finnegan's article.


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